The Organizational Ombuds’ Role

I. The Functions, Standards of Practice, and Professional Values of Organizational Ombuds

This section contains articles (from 1986 to the present, in reverse chronological order) about the ombuds profession, including: an illustrative ombuds case; communicating about the most serious and high-risk ombuds cases; some early history of the ombuds profession; ombuds training materials; reports of ombudsman surveys; an overview about what organizational ombuds do and do not do; and an examination of the importance of organizational ombuds for helping to build community, support the values and mission of the organization, and deal with risks. There also are two Ombudsman Handbooks.

The articles discuss:

» the professional values of an organizational ombuds, including impartiality, fairness, and objectivity in the treatment of people and the consideration of issues.

» the standards of practice of an organizational ombuds: independence, confidentiality, neutrality or impartiality, and informality. (Informality refers to the fact that the ombuds is not authorized to make management decisions; provide redress; keep case records for the employer; accept notice; or speak for the employer. Interaction with the ombuds is voluntary for all constituents.)

» the functions of organizational ombuds: what they do and do not do; their work in comparison to the work of other types of ombudsmen; and their functions in comparison with those of other offices in their organizations.

» some tools of the ombuds profession, such as the uses of data and the utility of generic options (which deal with issues rather than with individuals).

» some challenges encountered in ombuds work, such as dealing with the fear of violence or dealing with people who “won’t let go."

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• "The Poster War: An Ombuds Learns About Sources of Power, Helping People Help Themselves, and the Role of Affinity Groups in Bringing About Change." Rowe, Mary. Working paper. Cambridge, MA: October 2024.
• "The Unique—and Effective—Quartet of Standards of Practice of Organizational Ombuds: Each Standard is Necessary—and Requires the Other Three Standards" (PDF). Rowe, Mary P., and Bruce MacAllister. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, March 2024. Submitted to Journal of the International Ombuds Association (JIOA).
• "Organizational Ombuds' Sources of Power and Influence" (PDF). Rowe, Mary P. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, December 2023. Submitted to Journal of the International Ombuds Association (JIOA).
• "Some of the Sources of Power and Influence of an Organizational Ombuds" (PDF). Rowe, Mary P. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, August 2023. (Note: This shorter version is a teaching note.)
• "Becoming an Ombuds at MIT." Rowe, Mary. Conflict Resolution Quarterly Vol. 40, Issue 4 (Summer 2023): 497-504.
• “Consider Generic Options When Complainants and Bystanders Are Fearful.” Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 16, No 2 (Mary Rowe special issue, 2023-2024).
• “'Drafting a Letter' for People Dealing with Harassment or Bullying." Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 16, No 2 (Mary Rowe special issue, 2023-2024).
• "Bystanders: 'See Something, Say Something' Is Not Enough." Rowe, Mary P. Alternatives to the High Cost of Litigation Vol. 39, No. 10 (November 2021): 153-165. (Note: This article is an expansion of "Supporting Bystanders: See Something, Say Something is Not Enough." Rowe, Mary. MIT Sloan Working Paper 5897-20. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, January 2020. The article addresses the importance of having an ombuds to help vulnerable people act or come forward.)
• “What Do Organizational Ombuds Do? And Not Do?” Rowe, Mary, Timothy Hedeen, and Jennifer Schneider. The Independent Voice, International Ombudsman Association, September 2020. (Note: This article reflects data from three International Ombudsman Association surveys. It includes an appendix which compares organizational ombuds with other types of ombudsmen in the US.)
• "Negotiations Theory and Ombuds Practice." Rowe, Mary. Negotiation Journal 31, No. 4 (October 2015): 419-423. (Note: This article contains notes about people whose interests in negotiation are to injure the other party.)
• "Organizational Ombudsman." Rowe, Mary, and Randy Williams. In Cutting Edge Advances in Resolving Workplace Disputes, 97-111. New York, NY: The International Institute for Conflict Prevention and Resolution, 2014. (Note: This chapter includes a table that shows how organizational ombuds complement the roles of other conflict management offices in an organization.)
• “The Organizational Ombudsman.” Rowe, Mary, and Howard Gadlin. In The Oxford Handbook of Conflict Management in Organizations, edited by William K. Roche, Paul Teague, and Alexander J.S. Colvin. Oxford University Press, 2014.
• "The Solo Organizational Ombudsman Practitioner... and Our Need for Colleagues...A Conversation.” (PDF) Rowe, Mary, and Brian Bloch. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 5, No. 2 (2012): 18-22.
• “Informality, the Fourth Standard of Practice” (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 5, No. 1 (Winter 2012): 8-17.
• “What Happens to Confidentiality if the Visitor Refuses to Report Unacceptable Behavior?” (PDF) Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 4, No. 2 (Fall 2011): 40-43.
• "Ombudsman." Rowe, Mary, and Howard Gadlin. In The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace, edited by Nigel J. Young. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
• “The Several Purposes of the OO Crystal Ball.” (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 3, No. 2 (October 2010): 60-65. (Note: This article shows that ombuds can help identify and assess issues new to the organization.)
• “Dealing with—or Reporting—‘Unacceptable’ Behavior” (PDF). Rowe, Mary, Linda Wilcox, and Howard Gadlin. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 2, No. 1 (Winter 2009):52-64. (Note: This article was written with input from dozens of ombuds, collected over a ten-year period.)
• “Systems for Dealing with Conflict and Learning from Conflict—Options for Complaint-Handling: An Illustrative Case.” Bloch, Brian, David Miller, and Mary Rowe. Harvard Negotiation Law Review 14 (2009): 239-247.
• "An Organizational Ombuds Office in a System for Dealing with Conflict and Learning from Conflict, or ‘Conflict Management System.'" Rowe, Mary. Harvard Negotiation Law Review Vol. 14 (2009): 279-288.
• “Organizational Systems for Dealing with Conflict & Learning from Conflict: Introduction.” Rowe, Mary. Harvard Negotiation Law Review Vol. 14 (2009): 233-239.
• “The Organizational Ombudsman.” Rowe, Mary, and Yoshiko Takahashi. The Japanese Journal of Labour Studies Vol. 48, No. 1 (January 2006): 46-56.
• “The Organizational Ombuds” (PDF). Rowe, Mary P., and Wilbur Hicks. In Resource Book for Managing Employment Disputes. CPR Institute for Dispute Resolution, 2004.
• “Notes on Complaint Handling Options for Managers” (PDF).  Rowe, Mary. (Note: This was compiled for the MIT Sloan Negotiation and Conflict Management course 15.667 in 2002.)
• “Dealing with the Fear of Violence: What an Organizational Ombudsman Might Want to Know” (PDF). Rowe, Mary P., and Linda J. Wilcox. The Ombudsman Association, 2000.
• “What Is It Like to Be an Organizational Ombudsperson?” Rowe, Mary P. Perspectives on Work Vol. 1, No. 2 (1997): 60-4.
• “Options, Functions, and Skills: What an Organizational Ombudsperson Might Want to Know” (PDF). Rowe, Mary P. Negotiation Journal Vol. 11, No. 2 (April 1995): 103-114. Also reprinted by The Ombudsman Association, 1995.
• “People with Delusions or Quasi-Delusions Who ‘Won't Let Go’” (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Journal of the University and College Ombuds Association, Occasional Paper, Number 1, Fall 1994.
• The Corporate Ombudsman Handbook, second edition. Hendry, James, Carole Trocchio, Ann Bensinger, Mary Rowe, and Virgil Marti, eds. The Ombudsman Association, 1994.
• "Comment” on “What Should I Do with My Problem Employee? A Case Study." Rowe, Mary. In Stover, Catherine, ed., Small Business FORUM: Journal of the Association of Small Business Development Centers Vol. 11, No. 1 (Spring 1993): 19-22. Also reprinted in Problems and Solutions in Small Business Management, Stover, Catherine, ed. Upstart Publishing, 1995.
• "Corporate Ombudsmen: Functions, Caseloads, Approaches and Outcomes."  Ziegenfuss, James T., Jr., Mary Rowe, and Robert F. Munzenrider. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration Vol. 15, No. 3 (Winter 1993): 261-280. (Note: Includes results of a 1989 survey of 55 corporate ombudsmen.)
• "An Overview of Client and Internal Ombudsmen." Rowe, Mary P. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration Vol. 15, No. 3 (Winter 1993): 259-260.
• "The Ombudsman's Role in a Dispute Resolution System." Rowe, Mary P. Negotiation Journal Vol. 7, No. 4 (October 1991): 353-361. (Note: This article includes a discussion of whether “an ombuds has any power” and early estimates about cost-effectiveness of ombuds.)
• “Helping People Help Themselves: An ADR Option for Complaint Handlers.”  Rowe, Mary P. Negotiation Journal Vol. 6, No. 3 (July 1990): 239-248. (Note: This article was written for complaint-handlers before current laws, but it includes a review of many points relevant for complainants who are interested in helping themselves, and for complaint-handlers who support them.)
• "Ombudsman Dilemmas: Confidentiality, Neutrality, Testifying, Record-Keeping." Rowe, Mary P., Mary G. Simon, and Ann Bensinger. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Society of Professionals in Dispute Resolution (SPIDR) 1989, 282-293. SPIDR, 1990. Also reprinted in Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration Vol. 15, No. 3 (Winter 1993): 329-340.
• “Should an Ombudsman Testify?”  Rowe, Mary. BNA Alternative Dispute Resolution Report Vol. 3 (June 1989): 222-223.
• "Corporate Ombudsmen."  Ziegenfuss, James T., Jr.,  Mary Rowe, Lee Robbins, and Robert Munzenrider. Personnel Journal, March 1989: 76-79.
• “Ombuds Jobs are Proliferating, and Characterized by Diversity” (PDF). Rowe, Mary. BNA Alternative Dispute Resolution Report Vol. 2 (May 25, 1988): 198-99.
• The Ombudsman Handbook, first (draft) edition. Hendry, James, Mary Rowe, et al., co-editors. Corporate Ombudsman Association, May 1987.
• “Corporate Ombudsmen: An Exploratory National Survey of Purposes and Activities.”  Ziegenfuss, James T., Jr.,  Lee Robbins, and Mary Rowe, for the Fourth Annual Corporate Ombudsman Association Meeting, May 1987.
• "The Corporate Ombudsman: An Overview and Analysis." Rowe, Mary. Negotiation Journal Vol. 3, No. 2 (April 1987): 127-140.
• "The Ombudsman as an Ounce of Prevention." Roddy, John, and Mary P. Rowe. Industry Vol. 51, No. 3 (March 1987): 42-44.
• "The Growing Phenomenon of the Ombuds." Rowe, Mary. Alternatives to the High Cost of Litigation Vol 4. No. 10, (October 1986): 3-6.
• “Are You Hearing Enough Employee Concerns?” (PDF)  Rowe, Mary P., and Michael Baker. Harvard Business Review Vol. 62, No. 3 (May-June 1984): 127-136. (Note: This article provides an overview of non-union complaint systems in the US.)

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II. The Effectiveness and Value of Organizational Ombuds

This section contains articles (from 1987 to the present, in reverse chronological order) that cover such topics as discussions of risk management for an organization and all its members; the 2016 Ombudsman Report to the Administrative Conference of the United States (ACUS Report); a very detailed overview of difficulties encountered in assessing the cost-effectiveness of ombuds services, and—nevertheless—some estimates of the value of ombuds offices.

Other subjects include:

» the importance—for all the members of an organization and the organization’s image and reputation—of having a safe, accessible, fair, and credible professional with whom to discuss any work-related issue and develop options going forward.

» the ombuds’ role in reducing risk for all constituents who wish to discuss a concern or a good idea and how this helps the organization manage risk by helping to surface information to leadership.

» the role of an ombuds in responsive listening throughout an organization, identifying and assessing new concerns, good ideas, and issues needing attention.

» the ombuds’ role in sustaining attention to recurring problems like racism; discrimination on the basis of gender, identity, or religion; xenophobia; ableism; ageism; myriad forms of abuse and retaliation; unfair processes; and integrity issues.

» the importance of ombuds office data collection and especially a) collecting benchmark data before an ombuds office starts, and b) data about an ombuds’ most serious cases.

» the ombuds’ roles in dispute resolution, including as sounding board, interpreter, go-between, catalyst, bridge-builder, informal fact finder, facilitator, and expert resource (as an “inside outsider”) for the conflict management system.

» the ombuds' role in providing informal and largely invisible coordination for all the units in a conflict management system in the context of constant referrals to and from the office.

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• "The Most Serious Cases Reported by Organizational Ombuds: Data from Surveys and Interviews." Rowe, Mary, Timothy Hedeen, Jennifer Schneider, and Hector Escalante. International Ombudsman Association, October 2022. (Note: This article helps in evaluation and self-evaluation of and by ombuds.)
• "Organizational Ombuds Data: Helping to Understand Ombuds Effectiveness." Rowe, Mary. MIT Sloan Working Paper 6464-21. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, August 2021.
• "The Importance of Bystanders in Threat Assessment and Management." Borum, Randy, and Mary Rowe. Chapter 24 in The International Handbook of Threat Assessment, 2^nd ed., edited by J. Reid Meloy and Jens Hoffmann. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. (Note: This article addresses the importance of an ombuds in helping vulnerable people act or come forward in the context of national security.)
• "A Framework For Communicating How Organizational Ombuds Help to Manage Risk.” Rowe, Mary, Timothy Hedeen, and Jennifer Schneider. Working paper, ©2019. (Note: Among other things, this article examines the importance of the International Ombudsman Association Standards of Practice in helping all constituents manage risks.)
• "A Reappraisal — The Nature and Value of Ombudsmen in Federal Agencies, Part 1: Executive Summary." Houk, Carole S., Mary P. Rowe, Deborah Katz, Neil H. Katz, Lauren Marx, and Timothy Hedeen. In Final Report to ACUS for Conference Consideration, November 2016.
• "A Reappraisal — The Nature and Value of Ombudsmen in Federal Agencies, Part 2: Research Report." Houk, Carole S., Mary P. Rowe, Deborah A. Katz, Neil H. Katz, Lauren Marx, and Timothy Hedeen. In Final Report to ACUS for Conference Consideration, November 2016.
• “Identifying and Communicating the Usefulness of Organizational Ombuds, With Ideas about OO Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness” (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association 3, No. 1 (Winter 2010): 9-23. (Note: This article reviews many of the methodological problems in assessing the effectiveness of an ombuds office and emphasizes the importance of the “most serious cases” in demonstrating effectiveness and the importance of benchmarking before an ombuds office opens.)
• “Effectiveness of Organizational Ombudsmen” (PDF). Rowe, Mary, and Mary Simon. Chapter IV in The Ombudsman Association Handbook, 1-22. Hillsborough, NJ: The Ombudsman Association, 2001, update dated April 2002.
• “Options and Choice for Conflict Resolution in the Workplace.” Rowe, Mary P.  In Negotiation Strategies for Mutual Gain: The Basic Seminar of the Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School, edited by Lavinia Hall, 105-119. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1993. (Note: This chapter focuses on the need for providing choices for complainants.)
• "Corporate Ombudsmen: Functions, Caseloads, Approaches and Outcomes." Ziegenfuss, James T., Jr., Mary Rowe, and Robert F. Munzenrider. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration 15, No. 3 (Winter 1993): 261-280. (Note: Includes results of a 1989 survey of 55 corporate ombudsmen.)
• "Perspectives on Costs and Cost Effectiveness of Ombudsman Programs in Four Fields." Rowe, Mary P., James T. Ziegenfuss, Jr., Gary Hall, A. J. Perneski, Gary Hall, and Marshall Lux. Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration 15, No. 3 (Winter 1993): 281-312. (Note: These articles include analyses of five types of ombudsman offices.)
• "Cost-Effectiveness of Ombudsman Offices." Perneski, Tony, and Mary Rowe, in Ombudsman News (newsletter of the Corporate Ombudsman Association), Spring 1990. (Note: This issue contains other articles as well.)
• "Organizational Response to Assessed Risk: Complaint Channels." Rowe, Mary P. In the Program Record of the 1988 IEEE Electro/88 Conference, Boston, MA, May 1988.
• "Corporate Ombudsmen: An Exploratory National Survey of Purposes and Activities," and “Cost-Effectiveness of Ombudsman Offices.” Ziegenfuss, James T., Lee Robbins, and Mary Rowe, May 1988.

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III. Some Self-Help Materials from an Ombuds Office

An ombuds office often posts self-help materials, which frequently get a lot of use.

• "Negotiating for Jobs and Salaries (and Everything Else): Prepare, Prepare, Prepare" (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, February 2024. (Note: This is a teaching note.)
• "Helping Hesitant Bystanders Identify Their Options: A Checklist with Examples and Ideas to Consider." (PDF). Rowe, Mary. Journal of the International Ombudsman Association Vol. 16, No. 2 (Mary Rowe special issue, 2023-2024).
• "Is the Other Person Competing? Collaborating? Possibly Intending Harm? Ideas to Consider in a Negotiation." (PDF). Rowe, Mary. MIT Sloan Working Paper 6746-22. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, September 2022.
• "Changing Behavior, Letting It Be—Or Maybe Making It Worse: Ideas to Consider " (PDF). Rowe, Mary. MIT Sloan Working Paper 6747-22. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, April 2022.
• "When is a Difficult Person not a Difficult Person? Negotiating Across Worldviews One-on-one." Rowe, Negotiation Journal Vol. 38, No. 3 (2022):523-529.
• “If You Have Been Harassed or Bullied: Some Ideas to Consider.” Rowe, Mary. MIT Sloan Working Paper 5388-18. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, September 2021.
• “Find Yourself the Mentoring You Need” (PDF). Rowe, Mary.

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